http://www.alart.org/contemporary-art-pluralism/
Polyandry a social system in India: Now State of the disappearance
Polyandry a social system in INDIA: STATE OF THE DISAPPEARANCE NOW
· Mohan.L Madan *
————————————————– ————————————————– ——–
What is polyandry?
Social scientists believe it is derived from the Greek word 'Polyandria', consisting of "poly" meaning many and "Andry Andria or" men media (aria), referring to the condition of a woman with many men. Notes and Queries in Anthropology define polyandry "by which a woman is allowed have more than one husband at the same time. "Kapadia According to" polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time, or in which siblings share a common wife or wives. "According to Goldstein," Polyandry is a form of marriage in which two or more people share a "girlfriend, and Berreman is a way "in which a woman has more than one husband at a time." Sangree and Levine is of the opinion that "the term polyandry can be used in reference to any situation in which a woman is married with two or more men at the same time, "Rapson adds to this and writes that" in the strict sense epic polyandry is the marriage of a woman to a family of brothers. Briffault believes that "the opposite or complementary to the standard of polygyny is to say sororal polyandry fraternal, that a woman marries a member of another family who marries all men for marriage from the family. "
The polyandry has three main requirements, namely a woman over a man and the marriage or social sanction of marriage or legitimate social union. This indicates clearly that the legitimacy (Marriage) of a woman over a man in polyandry is a necessity. In other words recognized the legitimate plurality of husbands is a woman polyandry. A union without marriage can be called as'cicisbeism 'or "cohabitation."
Types of polyandry
So in terms of type concerns polyandry has been divided into two types depending on the type of relationship that husbands different. The husbands are brothers or not at all related. Thus, this relational affinity polyandry divided into two: 1. Fraternal polyandry husbands are all brothers: 2. No fraternal polyandry in which husbands are not related.
Fraternal polyandry
In the women's husbands are all brothers. This type of polyandry is common among Khasan Dehra Dun. Among other tribes where polyandry fraternal is present in some form or another, we can mention the Mala Gallongs Madessars, Mavilans, etc of Kerala. Rivers believes that all practices fraternal polyandry but not much in practice these days.
Fraternal Polyandry not
In non-fraternal polyandry, the husband of a woman need not be related fraternally each other. A woman is free to choose partners from among persons who are not brothers of her husband. She, in turn, lives in the apartment of her different husbands and while she one is left with the other husbands are not entitled to enter. Among the Todas of Nilgiri a woman has perfect freedom to choose any person as his running mate. The woman, after having several husbands, makes the arrangement so that he spends the first month, for example, the first husband, the second month with the second, third, and so on, or, depending on how it allocates months. The Nayars are considered a specific case for the non-fraternal polyandry. Aiyappa is of the opinion (in our personal lives debates) that this type of polyandry or polyandry, as such, has become a thing of the past. The Kotas also practice this type of polyandry. Against it, to some extent are tribes like the Karvazhies, Pulay, Muthuvans and tomorrow in Kerala.
They take the origin and development of polyandry? Prince Pedro in his work on momental polyandry (the study of polyandry), categorized the reasons various causes (polyandry) in five categories, namely historical, demographic, sociological, economic and personal. However, the ecology, the most important and vital "or the environment" has not been included as a major cause different. "Thus, the Group of various causes, which could led to polyandry in the following five categories.
Historical View
Majumdar in writing people living Jaunsaries Jaunsaras-Bawar district Dehradun, UP indicates that polyandry in Jaunsaras-Bawar has reinforced the mythology of the Pandavas of those who trace Khasa source. On the other hand, Prince Peter writes "about the Mahabharat polyandry in India, Vysasa says the habit of taking more than one husband has been in the country since time immemorial. Therefore, historically justifiable. "Basing its generalization in the circumstances and the availability of information, Briffault writes that "the practice of polyandrous marriage between the Indo-Aryans of the Punjab survival is associated with others of a more archaic and tribal society, that are culturally identical to the uses of the polyandrous people of Hindu-Kush, where the invaders came to India.
Ecological Impact
The medium environment, however, dictate their own terms and traditions are born of necessity and human invention. Symons consider polyandry as a product of hard or "unnatural" environment in which man acknowledges that "half a loaf is better than writing nothing," Singh Polyandry in ancient India, writes that "life was hard as ever on the ground high mountain and polyandry strongly brother and helped the family unit. The population growth was carried out under control, limiting the power of procreation of men many to a single female, even when women feel safer with many husbands in an inhospitable environment. "
The 'Ecology is perhaps the most important factor in favor of polyandry that have flourished in northwestern Himalayan societies. Polyandry among Khasan was perpetuated by their physical environment as well as the biological and social factors of life among the other group Khasan does not reflect the impact of physical environment or biological factor. Van den Barash and said Bargh, "Polyandry aligned to the very special conditions, such as severe ecological conditions." "An analysis indicates that wherever polyandry was common, the environment was hard, this social institution could have been a result of the adoption. "
Afanasyev reason and rightly noted that "The society and the natural environment are organically interconnected, and as a result of interconnection arises noncombatant quality inherent in the nature or separate society "Crook conjectures about writing the Prince Pedro, until" reveals the association between ecology, heritage and polyandry. " Written elsewhere that Ladakhi polyandry polyandry presents origin "in an ecologically adapted culture. It seems likely that primitive tribal settlements may have evolved polyandrous tendencies as a way to solve their environmental problems. "
The appearance and the existence of polyandry may be due to several factors, but social institutions polyandry is closely associated with ecology and ecology is one of the most important determinants of polyandry. "Raha Cooman and thinks that" there is reason to believe that polyandry may be a product of a peculiar ecological status or ecological condition peculiar may have helped in the development and nourishment of polyandry. "Thus, it can reasonably be argued that ecology (environment) is one of the main determinants or causes of polyandry.
The Hindu tradition
Mahabharata says that the Pandavas traveled to India during his pilgrimage, and provides the traditional basis of polyandry also provides the basis for unequal marriages between brothers and polygyny, none of which are practiced in the same way as Tibetan polyandry in Nepal or the Pahari region. The lack of substantial support for polyandry demonstrates anomaly between marriage institutions in the world and further studies polyandry in other cultures in India and Nepal are needed to discover the benefits of polyandry in a contemporary society.
Demographic disparity men and women
One of the most important topic is discussed at the probable cause of polyandry in demography. The disparity in the sex-ratio may be one of the main reasons for the prevalence of polyandry. Mclennan referring Singh writes "The origin of exogamy refers to the lack of balance. And the origin of polyandry, should also be mentioned the same cause. "Moreover, Drew was of the opinion that" polyandry alters sex ratios in children born of experience the number of females, but this is "hypothetical. All Breeks says polyandry is undoubtedly related to the scarcity of women and their practice now depends on the means of individuals.
It is suggested that when there polyandry, there is a surplus of male children but the woman emerges deficiency in all parts of India as a biological phenomenon and not limited only to areas of polyandry communities. The population growth was carried out under control, limiting the power of procreation of many males to one female polyandry. Other aspects are "to check the population growth in regions of the out-migration is difficult, "or for the prevention and increasing the number of the family. A few, such as rivers, suggested that polyandry resulting from female infanticide, but Walton said there was "no trace of this have existed in Jaunsaras-Bawar ', although it was polyandry / prevalent there. The literature on female infanticide clearly confirms that polyandry can not be the result of female infanticide, but the shortage of females may be an additional factor in the prevalence of polyandry, along with ecology.
Raha Mahato and believes that "the regions of the Himalayas have been the hostile climate, limited resources insufficient food supply necessary to limit population growth and the existence of polyandry has helped solve these problems greatly. "
Economic benefits
The economy has been appointed as one of the main factors for polyandry by several investigators (Westermarck, Saxena, Kapadia, Furer-Haimendrof, Parmar, et al.) Shishaudhia is of the view that Jaunsaras-Bawar "this unequal distribution of family assets between the brothers has indirectly encouraged the continuation of polyandrous families joint in the region. "Moreover Westermarck said it's possible that" poverty and lack of women can easily be combined cause of polyandry ". The" two reasons for polyandry scarce goods and extra work (and) third theory, the practice began as a byproduct of feudalism. "
At some point, combined with "the scarcity of land to prevent the division of property ownership and high bride price. In Kinnaur "polyandry in past directly encouraged by the state through sanctions imposed on the partitions. (Gazetteerm the State of Punjab, Shimla Hill State, Govt. In Punjab). Furer-Heimendorf thinks "property has played an important role in the formation of polyandry." Singh writes, "when the rich practice polyandry, is because they want to keep without sharing their wealth and their influence intact. When the bride price in some areas is too high for one person to pay, many men pool their resources to purchase an ordinary woman. "There has been a long discussion on the role of economics in the maintenance of polyandry, and most researchers think it is a the main causes of polyandry and must have worked with other forces.
An analysis of several shows that there is a cause, which resulted in polyandry and its perpetuation, but the institution is multi-causal, a role play more and play a supporting role. But this is a collective manifesto of various causes. Thus, the theory of single cause holds up well. The most important causes and the main ones are the ecology, demography and economics, and many others who could have acted as a catalyst or supplemented to other causes of polyandry. The space and time might have given rise to polyandry in the different communities at different times in different parts of the world due to various (and / or different causes). The cumulative effect of the different causes must be responsible for polyandry, and thereby meets the man with time and space. Thus the multi-causal theory is the only explanation for the emergence and existence of polyandry.
Retrospection
"The earliest known evidence of polyandry comes from the Sumerian civilization Harappa (had) link with ancient Sumer. "According to Singh," the practice of polyandry, known as the gods and men, dates back to the era of Rigveda. The Vedas, the Sutras and Smritis, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, Buddhist texts and as the Jains, Kautilya and the Kamasutra testify to its existence in ancient India. And the evidence of literature is reinforced by the iconography and art and later by polyandrous the presence of pockets of Tibet in the north to Ceylon in the South ". The ambiguity of the prevalence of polyandry in India in the past, especially When Draupadi was married, it is clear from the earliest writings. Rigveda clearly permits polygamy but monogamy may have been the rule, probably, polygamy, although permitted, virtually confined to the class Rajanya, polyandry is not mentioned anywhere in the Rigveda. The few passages in the wedding song in which "husbands" (plural) spoken in relationship with a woman can only be explained in mythological form.
On the other hand, Wheeler believes that "marriage of a woman many brothers was an existing institution "during the period in which Draupadi got married. But in view of Muir polyandry may have been practiced even before Pandava period and must have "fallen into disuse or have been discredited." Kapadia agreed with the view of Muir and type "polyandry seems to be discredited as a cultural trait of the time of the Brahmins Aitareya (800 BC). When told that a man could have many wives, but women could only have one husband. The Mahabharata reaffirms this tradition. To have many wives is not adharma by man, but to violate the duties owed to the former husband would be a great adharma in the case of women .
Westermarck writes' polyandry in general in northern India is limited to non-Aryan or Dravidian Tibetan – tribes or castes, however, often is supposed to have existed among the early Aryans. "Polyandry" was performed once by the peoples of the cis-Himalayan tract in northern India and among some tribes groups pre-Dravidian or Dravidian in the south of India. It is assumed that once been a feature of the Brahmanical culture classic example and some vague allusion Draupati polyandry in the Vedic mythology. Polyandry among these groups and tribes has different patterns and have different origins and development. "Is not limited to the poor, but was also found between "high class" people.
Westermarck gave a good account of the prevalence of polyandry in the continent four in the world, ie, America, Asia, Australia and Africa. In the Indian subcontinent, the institution was mainly prevalent in the Himalayas, South India and some other outbreaks here and there. Westermarck, Prince Pedro, Singh, Majumdar, Tyagi and Tewari, Kapadia, Rivers, Iyer and many others who have detained about polyandry. Based in these writings and research on polyandry can be easy to say that the institution was frequent (and sometimes even now) between the different communities. Among some communities, a practice well established, while in others it was doubtful. But none-the-less, a kind of polyandry, is said to have existed between them in a or otherwise.
Perspective
The practice of polyandry, which has been previously reported not only from the Indian subcontinent, but from other parts the world has been "endangered"
Tyagi, Tewari and Singh expressed the view that "the practice of polyandry ceased to be respectable in the medium or Madhayadesa country, from the Gupta period. "Elsewhere he writes that" the increasing contact with non-polyandrous society of the plains is opening up serious damage to their distinctive family organization, and polyandry is probably on the way to comparative obsolescence. The operation of the various factors economic and political as well, the disappearance of polyandry in large parts of India can be partly explained in terms of caste "and individual uniqueness and promoted Brahmanism opposed to the propensity of households clans polyandry. That sense of clan or tribe, was, however, kept alive by caste, and even polyandry could not be completely uprooted. But now the feelings are eroding and polyandry is rapidly disappearing.
Mann was of the view that increased literacy and education etc, along with outside contact in Ladakh do not favor polyandry. Something similar Raha is the view and Cooma. When they write "modern education, cash and a market economy, better communication and transport, the new legislation, immigration nonpolyandrous people of the plains and low hills, etc. are the factors responsible for the decline of this type of marriage. "Polyandry in the Himalayas disappearance. Bhat writes "changes, planned and unplanned, increasing contact with the plains and the impact of increasing public authority and technology modern, couched in the capitalist economy precipitate changes in the subsystems of polyandry.
According to Iyer, polyandry is said to be "fast fighting between them and other breeds man, due to the influence of Western civilization. "During the 19th century polyandry was the reduced distance between the Nayars and many are now said to be extinct.
The institution of polyandry may die its natural death. There may be many reasons, such as the prohibition of female infanticide, industrialization and urbanization, the effects of family type and leads to monogamy individual psychology, social, economic and political constraints, to educate women about their rights, etc. It is also possible that the mass majority is forcing monogamous micro-minority of polyandry to abolish the archaic institution. And people simply imitate what polyandrous neighbors monogamous people. The institution of polyandry in several communities have extinct and many others, as Ladakhis, Jaunsaris, etc, where there was previously, are in various stages of loss and decay. In a nutshell polyandry to be deleted from India (but may remain in the few cases in some isolated pockets) at the end of this century or late in the first quarter of next century. Thus, in the future, will remain only in books, especially in the ethnographic materials of the past.
REFERENCES:
1. Abraham, CM 1958. The custom of polyandry as practiced in Travancore. East. Anth., 12: 107-118.
2. Aiyer, Subramaniam 1903, IOC 1901, vol. 26 – Report Tanvancore.
3. Berreman, GD 1962. Pahari Polyandry: A Comparison. Am Anthrop., 64 (1): 60-75.
4. Breeks, JW 1873. A list of primitive tribes and monuments of the 'Nilgiris. London. Cf. Westermarck, 1921: 191.
5. Chandra, R. 1987. Polyandry in the Himalayas of northwest – Some changes in trend. In Raha and Cooman, 1987, pp. 130-154.
6. Crook, JM 1987. Polyandry in Ladakh. In: Raha and Cooman, 1987, pp. 23-53.
7. Das Gupta, 1987 BK. A note on polyandry among Gallong. An analytical assessment. In Raha and Cooman, 1987, pp. 343-348.
8. Dunlop, RHW 1860. Hunting in the Himalayas.cf. Westermarck, 1921, pp. 168-169.
9. Encyclopedia Britannica 1969 vol. 18, USA: William Benton Publ.
10. Fischer, HT 1952. Polyandry. Int Archives of Ethnography, 40: 106-115.
11. Furer-Haimendorf, C. Von. Caste Kin and 1966 in Nepal, India and Ceylon. Bombay: Asia Publ. House of Representatives.
12. Goldstein, MC 1976. Fraternal polyandry and fertility in Valle High Himalayan in northwestern Nepal. Hum. Echo, 4: 223-233.
13. Gough, EK 1959. The Nayars and the definition of marriage. Jr. Roy. Anth. E institutions. GBIreland, 89 (1 +2): 23-34.
14. Hiatt, LR 1980. Polyandry in Srilanka: A test case for the theory of parental investment. Male, 15: 4.
15. Health, DB 1955. Sexual division of labor and research among different cultures. 44 Annual Meeting. Am Anth. Asso. Boston.
16. Iyer, LAK 1968. Social history of Kerala, vol. 1. The Pre-Dravidians, Delhi – East Publ. and booksellers.
17. Iyer, LAK 1909. The Cochin tribes and castes, vols. 1 AND 2, Madras.
18. Kapadia, KM 1955, 1959. Marriage and family in India. Bombay, Oxford University. Press.
19. Leach, ER 1955. Polyandry, Inheritance and the definition of marriage. Male, 55: 182-186.
20. Linton, R. 1936. A study of man, London. Macmillan & Co.
21. Majumdar, DN 1960, 1963. Himalayan Polyandry in London. Asia Publ. House of Representatives.
22. Mayne, JD 1951. A Treatise on Hindu law and usage, Madras. Originally publ. in 1914.
23. Notes and queries in Anthropology, 1954. JRAI. London.
24. Parmar, YS 1975. Polyandry in the Himalayas, New Delhi. Vilas Publ. House of Representatives.
25. Peter Prince, His Royal Highness 1963. A study of polyandry. The Hague, Mouton & Co.
26. Raha and Mahato SN 1985. The Himalayan Kinnaurese. Report no. 63. Calcutta. Anth. Study of India.
27. Rapson, EJ 1968. The Cambridge History of India. Vol 1 Ancient India, Delhi: S. Chand & Co. 3 Indians reprints.
28. Shishaudhie, VK 1987. Polyandry in a cis-Himalayan Community. In Raha and Cooman, 1987, pp. 220-232.
29. Singh, RD 1978. Polyandry in ancient India. New Delhi: Vikas Publ. Casa Iberia. Ltd.
30. Tennet, JF 1859. Ceylon. An account of the Island, Physical, historical and topographical, London.
31. Tyagi, DPK Tewari 1984. Polyandry in the perspective of the anthropology of urgency. Bull. Int Com. Urg. Anth. And Etno. Sc res., 119-123.
32. Unni, K. Raman 1958. Polyandry in Malabar. Sociological Bull., 7 (1 +2): 62-79.
33. Von den Bargh, P. Barash & DP 1977. inclusive fitness and structure of the human family. Am Anthrop., 79: 809-823.
34. Walton, HG 1911. Dehradun, A. gazetteer (Deptt. List of the United Province of Agra and Oudh, vol. 1). Allahabad, Govt. Press.
35. Westermarck, E. 1921. The History of Human Marriage, vol. III. London, Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
About the Author
http://www.articlesbase.com/publish-articles.php
The Boundaries of Pluralism